Small Business, Innovation, and Public Policy in the Information Technology Industry

New firms have played a major role in fomenting innovation in information technology. A recent study by Greenwood and Jovanovic [1999] provide one dramatic illustration of these trends. These authors show that a group of â€Å"IT upstarts†Ã¢â‚¬â€firms specializing in computer and communications technologies that went public after 1968—now account for over 4% of the total U. S. equity market capitalization. While some of this growth has come at the expense of incumbent information technology firms, the new market value and technological spillovers created by these new businesses appear to be substantial. The role of new firms in the information technology industries has rekindled interest in the relationship between firm characteristics and innovation. Are small businesses more innovative in general? Are high-technology start-ups particularly important? If the answer to either of these questions is yes, how should policymakers seek to encourage these firms? The relationship between innovation and firm characteristics has been one of the most researched topics in the empirical industrial organization literature. To summarize these discussions and draw some implications for policymakers in a few pages is thus a daunting challenge! Consequently, this essay takes a quite selective approach to these issues. First, I very briefly summarize the academic literature on the relationship between firm size and innovation. This work suggests that there appears to be a very weak relationship between firm size, the tendency to undertake R&D, and the effectiveness of research spending. Small businesses, in aggregate, do not appear to be particularly research-intensive or innovative. I then turn to examining one subset of small businesses that do appear to excel at innovation: venture capital-backed start-ups. I highlight some of the venture-backed firms’ contributions. I also discuss why the success of such firms is not accidental. In particular, I highlight the key problems that the financing of small innovative companies pose, as well as some of the key mechanisms that venture investors employ to guide the innovation process. It is not surprising, then, that venture capital investments are concentrated in information technology industries, and that they appear to pur innovation. Finally, I consider one set of policy issues related to small firms and innovation. In particular, I discuss some recent changes in the intellectual property protection system that appear to favor larger firms. I then argue that this may be an area that would reward increased attention by policy-makers interested in helping innovative small businesses in information technology a nd other high-technology industries. 1. Small Business and Innovation A substantial but largely inconclusive literature examines the relationship between firm size and innovation. These studies have been handicapped by the difficulty of measuring innovative inputs and outputs, as well as the challenges of creating a sample that is free of selection biases and other estimation problems. While a detailed review of this literature is beyond the scope of this piece, the interested reader can turn to surveys by Baldwin and Scott [1987] and Cohen and Levin [1989]. Much of the work in this literature has sought to relate measures of innovative discoveries—whether R&D expenditures, patents, inventions, or other measures—to firm size. Initial studies were undertaken using the largest manufacturing firms; more recent works have employed larger samples and more disaggregated data (e. g. , studies employing data on firms’ specific lines of business). Despite the improved methodology of recent studies, the results have remained inconclusive: even when a significant relationship between firm size and innovation has been found, it has had little economic significance. For instance, Cohen, Levin, and Mowery [1987] concluded that a doubling of firm size only increased the ratio of R&D to sales by 0. 2%. One of the relatively few empirical regularities emerging from studies of technological innovation is the critical role played by small firms and new entrants in certain industries. The role of entrants—typically de novo start-ups—in emerging industries was highlighted, for instance, in the pioneering case study-based research of Jewkes, Sawers, and Stillerman [1958]. Acs and Audretsch [1988] examined this question more systematically. They documented that the contribution of small firms to innovation was a function of industry conditions: the contribution was greatest in immature industries which were relatively unconcentrated. These findings suggested that entrepreneurs and small firms often played a key role in observing where new technologies could be applied to meet customer needs, and rapidly introducing products. These patterns are also predicted in several models of technological competition, many of which were reviewed in Reinganum [1989], as well in several analyses in the organizational behavior literature [several were discussed in Henderson, 1993]. The 1990s have seen several dramatic illustrations of these patterns. Two potentially revolutionary areas of technological innovation—biotechnology and the Internet—were pioneered by smaller entrants. Neither established drug companies nor mainframe computer manufacturers were pioneers in developing these technologies. By and large, small firms did not invent the key genetic engineering techniques or Internet protocols. Rather, the bulk of the enabling technologies were developed with Federal funds at academic institutions and research laboratories. It was the small entrants, however, who were the first to seize upon the commercial opportunities. 2. Venture Capital and Innovation One set of small firms, however, appear to have had a disproportionate effect on innovation: those backed by venture capitalists. Venture capital can be defined as equity or equity-linked investments in young, privately held companies, where the investor is a financial intermediary is typically actively as a director, advisor or even manager of the firm. ) While venture capitalists fund only a few hundred of the nearly one million businesses begun in the United States each year, these firms have a disprop ortionate impact on technological innovation. This claim is supported by a variety of evidence. One measure, while crude, is provided by the firms which â€Å"graduate† to the public marketplace. In the past two decades, about one-third of the companies going public (weighted by value) have been backed by venture investors. A second way to assess these claims is to examine which firms have been funded. Venture capitalists, while contributing a relatively modest share of the total financing, provided critical early capital and guidance to many of the new firms in such emerging industries as biotechnology, computer networking, and the Internet. In some cases, these new firms—utilizing the capital, expertise, and contacts provided by their venture capital investors—established themselves as market leaders. In other instances, they were acquired by larger corporations, or entered into licensing arrangements with such concerns. Consider, for instance, the biotechnology industry. Venture capitalists provided only a small fraction of the external financing raised in the industry, and only 450 out of 1500 firms have received venture financing through 1995. These venture-backed firms, however, accounted for over 85% of the patents awarded and drugs approved for marketing. Similarly, venture capitalists have aggressively backed firms in information technology industries, which accounted for 60% of all venture disbursements in 1998. These have included many of the most successful firms in the industry, including Amazon. com, Cisco Systems, Microsoft, Intel, and Yahoo. A final way to assess the impact of the venture industry is to consider the impact of venture backed firms. Survey results suggest that these investments have powerful impacts. For instance, a mid-1996 survey by the venture organization Kleiner, Perkins, Caufield, and Byers found that the firms that the partnership had financed since its inception in 1971 had created 131,000 jobs, generated $44 billion in annual revenues, and had $84 billion in market capitalization [Peltz, 1996]. While Kleiner, Perkins is one of the most successful venture capital groups, the results are suggestive of the impact of the industry. More systematically, Kortum and Lerner [1998] examining the influence of venture capital on patented inventions in the United States across twenty industries over three decades. They address concerns about causality in several ways, including exploiting a 1979 policy shift that spurred venture capital fundraising. They find that the amount of venture capital activity in an industry significantly increases its rate of patenting. While the ratio of venture capital to R&D has averaged less than 3% in recent years, the estimates suggest that venture capital accounts for about 15% of industrial innovations. They address concerns that these results are an artifact of the use of patent counts by demonstrating similar patterns when other measures of innovation are used in a sample of 530 venture-backed and non-venture-backed firms. Lending particular relevance to an examination of these firms is the tremendous boom in the U. S. venture capital industry in recent years. The pool of venture partnerships has grown ten-fold, from under $4 billion in 1978 to about $75 billion at the end of 1998. Venture capital’s recent growth has outstripped that of almost every class of financial product. It is worth underscoring that the tremendous success of venture-backed firms has not happened by accident. The interactions between venture capitalists and the entrepreneurs that they finance are often complex. They can be understood, however, as a response to the challenges that the financing of emerging growth companies pose. Entrepreneurs rarely have the capital to see their ideas to fruition and must rely on outside financiers. Meanwhile, those who control capital—for instance, pension fund trustees and university overseers—are unlikely to have the time or expertise to invest directly in young or restructuring firms. Some entrepreneurs might turn to other financing sources, such as bank loans or the issuance of public stock, to meet their needs. But because of four key factors, some of the most potentially profitable and exciting firms would be unable to access financing if venture capital did not exist. The first factor, uncertainty, is a measure of the array of potential outcomes for a company or project. The wider the dispersion of potential outcomes, the greater the uncertainty. By their very nature, young companies are associated with significant levels of uncertainty. Uncertainty surrounds whether the research program or new product will succeed. The response of firm’s rivals may also be uncertain. High uncertainty means that investors and entrepreneurs cannot confidently predict what the company will look like in the future. Uncertainty affects the willingness of investors to contribute capital, the desire of suppliers to extend credit, and the decisions of a firm’s managers. If managers are averse to taking risks, it may be difficult to induce them to make the right decisions. Conversely, if entrepreneurs are overoptimistic, then investors want to curtail various actions. Uncertainty also affects the timing of investment. Should an investor contribute all the capital at the beginning, or should he stage the investment through time? Investors need to know how information-gathering activities can address these concerns and when they should be undertaken. The second factor, asymmetric information (or information disparities), is distinct from uncertainty. Because of his day-to-day involvement with the firm, an entrepreneur knows more about his company’s prospects than investors, suppliers, or strategic partners. Various problems develop in settings where asymmetric information is prevalent. For instance, the entrepreneur may take detrimental actions that investors cannot observe: perhaps undertaking a riskier strategy than initially suggested or not working as hard as the investor expects. The entrepreneur might also invest in projects that build up his reputation at the investors’ expense. Asymmetric information can also lead to selection problems. The entrepreneur may exploit the fact that he knows more about the project or his abilities than investors do. Investors may find it difficult to distinguish between competent entrepreneurs and incompetent ones. Without the ability to screen out unacceptable projects and entrepreneurs, investors are unable to make efficient and appropriate decisions. The third factor affecting a firm’s corporate and financial strategy is the nature of its assets. Firms that have tangible assets—e. g. , machines, buildings, land, or physical inventory—may find financing easier to obtain or may be able to obtain more favorable terms. The ability to abscond with the firm’s source of value is more difficult when it relies on physical assets. When the most important assets are intangible, such as trade secrets, raising outside financing from traditional sources may be more challenging. Market conditions also play a key role in determining the difficulty of financing firms. Both the capital and product markets may be subject to substantial variations. The supply of capital from public investors and the price at which this capital is available may vary dramatically. These changes may be a response to regulatory edicts or shifts in investors’ perceptions of future profitability. Similarly, the nature of product markets may vary dramatically, whether due to shifts in the intensity of competition with rivals or in the nature of the customers. If there is exceedingly intense competition or a great deal of uncertainty about the size of the potential market, firms may find it very difficult to raise capital from traditional sources. Venture capitalists have a variety of mechanisms at their disposal to address these changing factors. They will invest in stages, often at increasing valuations. Each refinancing is tied to a re-evaluation of the company and its prospects. In these financings, they will employ complex financing mechanisms, often hybrid securities like convertible preferred equity or convertible debt. These financial structures can potentially screen out overconfident or under-qualified entrepreneurs and reduce the venture capitalists’ risks. They will also shift the mixture of investors from whom a firm acquires capital. Each source—private equity investors, corporations, and the public markets—may be appropriate for a firm at different points in its life. Venture capitalists provide not only introductions to these other sources of capital but certification—a â€Å"stamp of approval† that addresses the concerns of other investors. Finally, once the investment is made, they monitor and work with the entrepreneurs to ensure that the right operational and strategic decisions are made and implemented. 3. Innovation, Small Business, and Public Policy If small firms—or even some subset of small firms—are playing an important role in the innovation process, one policy goal should be to address threats to their future development. This is particularly true of threats that have been created by misguided government policies, however good the intentions of their designers. The area that I believe deserves particular attention relates to the key mechanism for protecting intellectual property, namely patents. The U. S. patent system has undergone a profound shift over the past fifteen years. The strength of patent protection has been dramatically bolstered, and both large and small firms are devoting considerably more effort to seeking patent protection and defending their patents in the courts. Many in the patent community—U. S. Patent and Trademark Office officials, the patent bar, and corporate patent staff—have welcomed these changes. But viewed more broadly, the reforms of the patent system and the consequent growth of patent litigation have created a substantial â€Å"innovation tax† that afflicts some of America's most important and creative small firms. Almost all formal disputes involving issued patents are tried in the Federal judicial system. The initial litigation must be undertaken in a district court. Prior to 1982, appeals of patent cases were heard in the appellate courts of the various circuits. These differed considerably in their interpretation of patent law. Because few appeals of patent cases were heard by the Supreme Court, substantial differences persisted, leading to widespread â€Å"forum shopping† by litigants. In 1982, the U. S. Congress established a centralized appellate court for patent cases, the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit (CAFC). As Robert Merges [1992] observes, While the CAFC was ostensibly formed strictly to unify patent doctrine, it was no doubt hoped by some (and expected by others) that the new court would make subtle alterations in the doctrinal fabric, with an eye to enhancing the patent system. To judge by results, that is exactly what happened. The CAFC's rulings have been more â€Å"pro-patent† than the previous courts. For instance, the circuit courts had affirmed 62% of district court findings of patent infringement in the three decades prior to the creation of the CAFC, while the CAFC in its first eight years affirmed 90% of such decisions [Koenig, 1980; Harmon, 1991]. The strengthening of patent law has not gone unnoticed by corporations. Over the past decade, patents awarded to U. S. corporations have increased by 50%. Furthermore, the willingness of firms to litigate patents has increased considerably. The number of patent suits instituted in the Federal courts has increased from 795 in 1981 to 1553 in 1993; adversarial proceedings within the U. S. Patent and Trademark Office have increased from 246 in 1980 to 684 in 1992 [Administrative Office, various years; U. S. Department of Commerce, various years]. My recent analysis of litigation by firms based in Middlesex County, Massachusetts suggests that six intellectual property-related suits are filed for every one hundred patent awards to corporations. These suits lead to significant expenditures by firms. Based on historical costs, I estimate that patent litigation begun in 1991 will lead to total legal expenditures (in 1991 dollars) of over $1 billion, a substantial amount relative to the $3. billion spent by U. S. firms on basic research in 1991. [These findings are summarized in Lerner, 1995. ] Litigation also leads to substantial indirect costs. The discovery process is likely to require the alleged infringer to produce extensive documentation, time-consuming depositions from employees, and may generate unfavorable publicity. Its officers and directors may also be held i ndividually liable. As firms have realized the value of their patent positions, they have begun reviewing their stockpiles of issued patents. Several companies, including Texas Instruments, Intel, Wang Laboratories, and Digital Equipment, have established groups that approach rivals to demand royalties on old patent awards. In many cases, they have been successful in extracting license agreements and/or past royalties. For instance, Texas Instruments is estimated to have netted $257 million in 1991 from patent licenses and settlements resulting from their general counsel's aggressive enforcement policy [Rosen, 1992]. Particularly striking, practitioner accounts suggest, has been the growth of litigation–and threats of litigation–between large and small firms. This trend is disturbing. While litigation is clearly a necessary mechanism to defend property rights, the proliferation of such suits may be leading to transfers of financial resources from some of the youngest and most innovative firms to more established, better capitalized concerns. Even if the target firm feels that it does not infringe, it may choose to settle rather than fight. It either may be unable to raise the capital to finance a protracted court battle, or else may believe that the publicity associated with the litigation will depress the valuation of its equity. In addition, these small firms may reduce or alter their investment in R. For instance, a 1990 survey of 376 firms found that the time and expense of intellectual property litigation was a major factor in the decision to pursue an innovation for almost twice as many firms with under 500 employees than for larger businesses [Koen, 1990]. These claims are also supported by my study [1995] of the patenting behavior of new biotechnology firms that have different litigation costs. I showed that firms with high litigation costs are less likely to patent in subclasses with many other awards, particularly those of firms with low litigation costs. These effects have been particularly pernicious in emerging industries. Chronically strained for resources, USPTO officials are unlikely to assign many patent examiners to emerging technologies in advance of a wave of applications. As patent applications begin flowing in, the USPTO frequently finds the retention of the few examiners skilled in the new technologies difficult. Companies are likely to hire away all but the least able examiners. These examiners are valuable not only for their knowledge of the USPTO examination procedure in the new technology, but also for their understanding of what other patent applications are in process but not awarded. (U. S. patent applications are held confidential until time of award. ) Many of the examinations in emerging technologies are as a result performed under severe time pressures by inexperienced examiners. Consequently, awards of patents in several critical new technologies have been delayed and highly inconsistent. These ambiguities have created ample opportunities for firms that seek to aggressively litigate their patent awards. The clearest examples of this problem are the biotechnology and software industries. In the latter industry, examples abound where inexperienced examiners have granted patents on technologies that were widely diffused but not previously patented [see, for instance, the many examples chronicled in Aharonian, 1999]. It might be asked why policy-makers have not addressed the deleterious effects of patent policy changes. The difficulties that Federal officials have faced in reforming the patent system are perhaps best illustrated by the efforts to simplify one of the most arcane aspects of our patent system, the â€Å"first-to-invent† policy. With the exception of the Philippines and Jordan, all other nations award patents to firms that are the first to file for patent protection. The U. S. , however, has clung to the first-to-invent system. In the U. S. , a patent will be awarded to the party who can demonstrate (through laboratory notebooks and other evidence) that he was the initial discoverer of a new invention, even if he did not file for patent protection until after others did (within certain limits). A frequently invoked argument for the first-to-invent system is that this provides protection for small inventors, who may take longer to translate a discovery into a completed patent application. While this argument is initially compelling, the reality is quite different. Disputes over priority of invention are resolved through a proceeding before the USPTO's Board of Patent Appeals and Interferences known as an interference. The Board will hold a hearing to determine which inventor first made the discovery. The interference process has been characterized as â€Å"an archaic procedure, replete with traps for the unwary† [Calvert, 1980]. These interferences consume a considerable amount of resources: the adjudication of the average interference is estimated to cost over one hundred thousand dollars [Kingston, 1992]. Yet in recent years, in only about 55 cases annually has the party that was second-to-file been determined to have been the first-to-invent [Calvert and Sofocleous, 1992]. Thus, the U. S. persists in this complex, costly, and idiosyncratic system in order to reverse the priority of 0. 3% of the patent applications filed each year. But this system has proved very resistant to change. At least since 1967, proposals have been unsuccessfully offered to shift the U. S. to a first-to-file system. As recently as January 1994, USPTO Commissioner Bruce Lehman was forced to withdraw such a proposal. While the voices raised in protest over his initiative—as those opposing e arlier reform attempts—were led by advocates for small inventors, it is difficult not to conclude that the greatest beneficiary from the first-to-file system is the small subset of the patent bar that specializes in interference law. It may be thought puzzling that independent inventors, who are generally unable to afford costly litigation, have been so active in supporting the retention of â€Å"first-to-invest. † A frequently voiced complaint is that small inventors take longer to prepare patent applications, and hence would lose out to better-financed rivals, in a â€Å"first-to-file† world. This argument appears to be specious for several reasons. First, economically important discoveries are typically the subject of patent filings in a number of countries. Thus, there is already an enormous pressure to file quickly. Second, the recent reforms of the U. S. system have created a new provisional patent application, which is much simpler to file than a full-fledged application. Finally, as former Commissioner Lehman notes, many most vocal independent inventors opposing patent reform are â€Å"weekend hobbyists . . . [rather than representatives of] knowledge-based industries† [Chartrand, 1995]. As this case study suggests, the failure of Federal reform efforts is due to several factors. First, the issues are complex, and sometimes difficult to understand. Simplistic claims frequently cloud these discussions. For instance, because firms use patents to protect innovations, it is frequently argued that a stronger patent system will lead to more innovation. Second, the people with the greatest economic stake in retaining a litigious and complex patent system—the patent bar—have proven to be a very powerful lobby. The efforts of the highly specialized interference bar to retain â€Å"first to invent† is a prime example. Finally, the top executives of technology-intensive firms have not mounted an effective campaign around these issues. The reason may be that the companies who are most adversely affected are small, capital-constrained firms who do not have time for major lobbying efforts. Thus, an important policy concern is that we avoid taking steps in the name of increasing competitiveness that actually interfere with the workings of innovative small businesses. The 1982 reform of the patent litigation process appears to have had exactly this sort of unintended consequence. References Zoltan J. Acs and David B. Audretsch, â€Å"Innovation in Large and Small Firms: An Empirical Analysis,† American Economic Review, 78 (1988), pp. 78-690. Administrative Office of the United States Courts, Annual Report of the Director, Washington: U. S. Government Printing Office, various years. Gregory Aharonian, â€Å"Internet Patent News Service,† http://metalab. unc. edu/patents/ipnsinfo. html, 1999. William L. Baldwin and John T. Scott, Market Structure and Technological Change, Chur, Switzerland: Harwood Academic Publishers, 1987. Ian A. Calvert, â€Å"An Overview of Interference Practice,† Journal of the Patent Office Society, 62 (1980), pp. 290-308. Ian A. Calvert and Michael Sofocleous, â€Å"Interference Statistics for Fiscal Years 1989 to 1991,† Journal of the Patent and Trademark Office Society, 74 (1992), pp. 822-826. Sabra Chartrand, â€Å"Facing High-Tech Issues, New Patents Chief in Reinventing a Staid Agency,† New York Times, July 14, 1995, p. 17. Michael P. Chu, â€Å"An Antitrust Solution to the New Wave of Predatory Patent Infringement Litigation,† William and Mary Law Review, 33 (1992), pp. 1341-68. Wesley M. Cohen and Richard C. Levin, Empirical Studies of Innovation and Market Structure,† in Richard Schmalensee and Robert D. Willig, editors, Handbook of Industrial Organization, New York: North-Holland, 1989, volume II, chapter 18. Wesley M. Cohen, Richard C. Levin, and David C. Mowery, â€Å"Firm Size and R&D Intensity: A Re-Examination,† Journal of Industrial Economics, 35 (1987), pp. 543-563. Paul A. Gompers and Josh Lerner, The Venture Capital Cycle, Cambridge: MIT Press, 1999. Jeremy Greenwood and Boyan Jovanovic, â€Å"The IT Revolution and the Stock Market,† American Economic Review Papers and Proceedings, 89 (1999) forthcoming. Robert L. Harmon, Patents and the Federal Circuit, Washington: Bureau of National Affairs, 1991. Rebecca Henderson, â€Å"Underinvestment and Incompetence as Responses to Radical Innovation: Evidence from the Photolithographic Alignment Equipment Industry,† Rand Journal of Economics, 24 (1993), pp. 248-270. Michael C. Jensen, â€Å"Presidential Address: The Modern Industrial Revolution, Exit, and the Failure of Internal Control Systems,† Journal of Finance, 48 (1993), pp. 831-880. John Jewkes, David Sawers, and Richard Stillerman, The Sources of Invention, London: St. Martins Press, 1958. William Kingston, â€Å"Is the United States Right about ‘First-to-Invent'? ,† European Intellectual Property Review, 7 (1992), pp. 23-226. Mary S. Koen, Survey of Small Business Use of Intellectual Property Protection: Report of a Survey Conducted by MO-SCI Corporation for the Small Business Administration, Rolla, Missouri: MO-SCI Corp. , 1990. Gloria K. Koenig, Patent Invalidity: A Statistical and Substantive Analysis, New York: Clark Boardman, 1980. Samuel Kortum a nd Josh Lerner, â€Å"Does Venture Capital Spur Innovation? ,† National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper No. 6846, 1998. Josh Lerner, â€Å"Patenting in the Shadow of Competitors,† Journal of Law and Economics, 38 (1995), pp. 63-595. Josh Lerner, â€Å"Small Businesses, Innovation, and Public Policy,† in Zoltan Acs, editor, Are Small Firms Important? , New York: Kluwer Academic Publishing, 1999, forthcoming. Josh Lerner and Robert Merges, â€Å"The Control of Strategic Alliances: An Empirical Analysis of Biotechnology Collaborations,† Journal of Industrial Economics (Special Issue on â€Å"Inside the Pin Factory: Empirical Studies Augmented by Manager Interviews. †), 46 (1998), pp. 125-156. Robert P. Merges, Patent Law and Policy, Charlottesville: Michie Company, 1992. National Venture Capital Association, 1999 National Venture Capital Association Yearbook, Arlington, Virginia: National Venture Capital Association, 1999. Michael Peltz, â€Å"High Tech’s Premier Venture Capitalist,† Institutional Investor, 30 (June 1996), pp. 89-98. Jennifer R. Reinganum, â€Å"The Timing of Innovation: Research, Development and Diffusion,† in Richard Schmalensee and Robert D. Willig, editors, Handbook of Industrial Organization, New York: North-Holland, 1989, volume I, chapter 14. Miriam Rosen, â€Å"Texas Instruments' $250 Million-a-Year Profit Center,† American Lawyer, 14 (March 1992), pp. 56-63.

Communication †According to Ability Essay

Whether CLT should be considered an approach or a methodology is a more abstract debate and here I want to deal with its more practical aspects. In fact, it is those very elements, and the name itself, which have been used to challenge the future relevance of CLT. Firstly, the label implies a focus on communication and some might argue that this method can’t be employed genuinely with low levels as there is no authentic communication, due to a limited vocabulary and restricted range of functions. Initially, many of a learner’s utterances are very formulaic. As an aside, consider just what percentage of our own English expressions are unique, and how often we rely on a set phrase; just because it is delivered unselfconsciously and with natural intonation does not make it original. The aim is that the length and complexity of exchanges, and confident delivery, will grow with the student’s language ability. With the emphasis on communication, there is also the implication that spoken exchanges should be authentic and meaningful; detractors claim that the artificial nature of classroom–based (i.e. teacher – created) interactions makes CLT an oxymoron. Nevertheless, a proficient teacher will provide a context so that class interactions are realistic and meaningful but with the support needed to assist students to generate the target language. We need to consider that producing language is a skill and when we learn a skill we practise in improvised settings. For example, before a nurse gives a real injection, they have punctured many a piece of fruit to hone their technique. Accuracy as Well as Fluency It might also be argued that the extent of some of the structures or functions may never be used in real life. One example is adjective order; I have given students an exercise where they have to produce a phrase with a string of adjectives, such as â€Å"a strong, orange, Norwegian, canvas tent.† This is very unnatural, as most times we only combine two or three adjectives. The other example is directions – we have students follow a map and negotiate exhaustive directions which suggest maze-like complexity. In reality, most of us probably are only involved in a three-phase set of directions. In fact, what we are doing with these exercises is exposing students to patterns which they can later activate. This focus on accuracy versus fluency is one of the issues not often considered in a discussion of CLT. The teacher decides to pay attention to one or other end of this band, depending on the type of lesson, or the stage of a particular lesson, and accuracy is their choice if they want to deal with students getting things right, take an opportunity for correction, or gauge the success of their teaching, for example. Freer speaking involves more choice, therefore more ambiguity, and less teacher intervention. While CLT implies the lessons are more student-centred, this does not mean they are un-structured. The teacher does have a very important role in the process, and that is setting up activities so that communication actually happens. There is a lot of preparation; accuracy practice is the bridge to a fluency activity. By implication, CLT involves equipping students with vocabulary, structures and functions, as well as strategies, to enable them to interact successfully. The reference to strategies introduces the matter of grammatical versus communicative competence. If we view the two as mutually exclusive, then we are likely to champion one over the other, in terms of approach, curriculum or whatever else determines and defines our classroom teaching. In fact, Canale and Swain’s model of communicative competence, referred to by Guangwei Hu, includes four sub-categories, namely grammatical, sociolinguistic discourse and strategic. They consider someone competent in English should demonstrate both rules of grammar and use. Promoting Learning This returns us to the consideration of who we are teaching, and why. Are our students aiming to learn or acquire English? Do they need to know lexical items and linguistic rules as a means of passing an exam, or do they want to be able to interact in English? For those inclined to maintain the dichotomy between learning and acquisition, and who argue that our primary focus is learners, CLT still has relevance. It is timely to review an early definition of CLT. According to Richards and Rodgers, in Guangwei Hu, CLT is basically about promoting learning. Then again, Mark Lowe suggests that we follow Halliday’s lead and drop the distinction between learning and acquisition, and refer to language mastery instead. After all, if the students master the language, they will certainly be able to perform better in exams, if that is their goal. In addition, those who do see a purpose beyond classroom-related English will be better equipped for using the language socially. Motivation One of the constant discussions in all my teacher training groups was how to motivate students. This suggests that the focus on passing the exam was not always enough. Motivation relates to engaging students but also includes confidence building. If there is a climate of trust and support in the classroom, then students are more likely to contribute. One way of developing this is to allow pair-checking of answers before open-class checking occurs. Another way is to include an opportunity for students to discuss a topic in small groups before there is any expectation that they speak in front of the whole class. Evelyn Doman suggests that â€Å"The need for ongoing negotiation during interaction increases the learners’ overt participation†¦Ã¢â‚¬  It is this involvement we need to harness and build on. Sometimes the participation is hardly what we would define as ‘negotiation’, but merely a contribution. For a few students, just uttering a word or a phrase can be an achievement. Indeed, some of the teachers in the training sessions said this was the goal they set for their more reticent pupils. And I have had students who, after writing their first note or e-mail in English, expressed their pride at being able to do so. If teachers consider an activity to be irrelevant or not engaging enough, there are many other tasks which may be more appropriate, such as surveys, using a stimulus picture and prompt questions (Who†¦ Where†¦ When†¦What†¦), or a series of pictures which need to be sequenced before a story is discussed. In this respect, CLT addresses another area which constantly challenges teachers, the mixed-ability class. When the lesson progresses to a freer-speaking activity, students can contribute according to their ability and confidence, although I acknowledge both need to be stretched. So there is a challenge for the more capable students, while those with an average ability still feel their effort is valid. This compares with the less creative opportunities offered by some textbooks, where students read a dialogue, perhaps doing a substitution activity, for example. A basic responsibility is considering and responding to the needs of our students, so if the course book is inadequate we need to employ the following steps: select, adapt, reject and supplement. Moreover, because each class we teach has its own characteristics and needs, CLT will vary each time we employ it. Conclusion Too often, a ‘new’ approach appears to completely dismiss the previous one. This is not always the intention, but probably more a result of the enthusiasm of practitioners exploring and implementing fresh activities or opportunities. Also, throughout the CLT debate, there seem to be dichotomies which are employed to argue for its irrelevance. It is evident that CLT has gathered a range of characteristics, perhaps more through misunderstanding or by association, but it is actually not as incompatible with other valued practices as it is sometimes made to appear.

Computer Operating Systems Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Computer Operating Systems - Research Paper Example It manages the resources of the computer. It allocates the CPU, memory and the input/output devices. It manages the data that is it handles the storage of the data it manages the input and output. It enables communication between the system and the user. There are different types of operating system available in the market such as Real-time, Multi-user, Multi-tasking, Distributed and Embedded. Real-time operating systems are used in applications which are real-time . Multi-user operating system are useful when there are more than one users to access a single computer at the same time. In Multi-tasking operating systems different tasks are executed at the same time. In Distributed operating system many computers are connected together to give the appearance of a single computer. Embedded operating systems are used in systems which are embedded. â€Å"Examples of popular modern operating systems include Android,BSD,iOS,GNU/Linux,Mac OS X,Microsoft Windows, Windows Phone and IBM z/OSâ €  (Operating System para. 4). In this research we will discuss various operating systems such as Snow Leopard, Windows, Linux, Unix and Ubuntu. We will study the advantages and disadvantages of these operating systems. We will also learn how these operating systems are installed in the computer. Snow Leopard – Snow leopard is an operating system used in Macintosh systems. It has a high performance, good efficiency and uses less memory to run. It is compatible with the new hardware of Macintosh. â€Å"New programming frameworks such as OpenCL were created allowing software developers to use graphic cards in their applications† (Mac OS X Snow Leopard para.2). It is not compatible with the Mac systems which use processors like PowerPC. â€Å"As support for Rosetta was dropped in Mac OS Lion, Snow Leopard is the last version of Mac OS X that is able to run PowerPC-only applications† (Mac OS X Snow Leopard para.2). It supports Intel’s Core Solo and Core Du o Processors which are 32-bit. Power is managed properly as new features like the â€Å"wake on demand feature supported on more recent Macintosh hardware. Wake on demand takes advantage of the sleepy proxy service implemented in Airport and Time Capsule routers, so that the computer can sleep while the router responds to mDNS queries. Should the request require the host computer to wake up, the router sends the necessary special wake-up-packet to sleeping computer† (Mac OS X Snow Leopard pg.4). System requirements of Snow Leopard are – A Mac Computer consisting of Intel processor RAM of 1GB Minimum 5GB free space DVD drive or USB for installing Some features need more requirements such as – â€Å"QuickTime H.264 hardware acceleration support, requires an Nvidia GeForce 9400M,320M, or GT330M graphics card† â€Å"OpenCL, requires a supported Nvidia or ATI graphics card† (Mac OS X Snow Leopard pg.2). Advantages and disadvantages – It is best t o use same company’s software and hardware while designing a system, but Snow Leopard uses Intel Processors and Nvidia graphic cards. This affects the performance of the system. There are least chances of virus attacks as compared to windows. There are less gaming features in it as most gaming companies prefer providing softwares for Windows operating system. There are interesting softwares bundled with Snow Leopard. Its desktop is very attractive. Installation – 1. Insert the Snow Leopard installation DVD in to the disk. 2. Double- click Install button. 3. Click on the continue button and accept

Slave Labor In India Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Slave Labor In India - Essay Example The political and social systems during the prehistoric times did not see slavery as forced labor, but as beneficial relationships between the nobles and the peasants. In addition, in most of the Indian society, the caste system was practiced and could not be termed as slavery per se as the working class was pooled and specialized without much consideration of the system (Mander, 2012). The caste system is said to be one of the root causes of the modern day slavery, human trafficking and bondage. The system denies equal rights, privileges and dignified treatment to some individuals, with people being differentiated based on their social status and gender. The practice has survived due to feudalism, which is a concept whereby, the nobles held land for the crown in exchange for military services, and the laborers worked to acquire protection and a share of the produce from them. The concept of feudalism has existed in the Indian society even before they were colonized by the British. After the country gained independence, it sought to be a more democratic state, but in the very nature of democracy, the practice still exists. One of the reasons for its existence is that most regions in the country were introduced during the times the country was fully feudalistic and as religion has not evolved much, the people still have the notion and concept integrated in their society (Katju, 2013). In 1975, India introduced a law banning debt bondage including a fine of 37 dollars to those found guilty of the crime. In the years that have followed, very few people have been jailed for the crime with the fine being a laughable amount. People are forced to work in farms to pay debts, with their employers imposing arbitrary interests and fines to make it impossible for them to be able to pay. In addition, girls are being forced to work for people in farms and textile mills as payment for dowry. The influence of

Improving Transactional Processing in AIS with Internal Controls Essay

Improving Transactional Processing in AIS with Internal Controls - Essay Example Technology enhances the ability to capture, analyze, and simulate financial data with ease. This translates to accruement of benefits, such as saving costs, elimination of redundancies, and streamlining of activities. The chief objective of IAS in all cycles includes capturing and processing of data concerning business activities, storing and organizing data to aid in decision making, and providing controls, which maintain reliability of data and safeguarding of resources (Sajady, Dastgir & Nejad, 2008). The advancement of information technology has enabled companies to transform their accounting information systems into automated processes via use of computers, servers, and accounting software. Revenue cycle refers to recurring set of business activities and related information processing operations connected to the provision of goods and services to clients and collection of cash payments. The core AIS functions carried out in the revenue cycle include capturing and processing of data, storing and organization of the data for decision making, and provision of controls to safeguard resources (Hall, 2011). The four basic business activities prominent in the revenue cycle include sales order entry, shipping, billing, and cash collection. IT can improve efficiency and effectiveness by routing online orders expressly to the warehouses for picking and shipping. In addition, technological changes can be achieved via electronic data interchange (EDI), which links the company directly to clients and as well manage the customer’s inventory (Gelinas, Dull & Wheeler, 2012). A firm may also use email and instant messaging to notify sales staff of any price changes. Transaction technology such as point of sales systems (POS) can link customer master files to enable automatic updates to accounts receivable. In cash collections, the firm may adopt electronic funds

Organization and transformation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5250 words

Organization and transformation - Essay Example Personal Lessons 23 Organizational Lessons 24 References 26 Key Themes Value Creation; Market Share; Organisational Restructuring; Integration; Service and Product Enhancement; Organizational Innovation Introduction The world is moving with a rapid pace with the incorporation of large number of developmental activities being generated in the field of technology and human resources. In fact the growth of immense competition in the external environment of the company is demanding large number of transformational activities being pursued in the internal environment of the company. ... Further several foreign firms are also making huge foray into the so called protected markets by breaking down the trade barriers constructed by the governments of the day. (Levy & Merry, 1986, p.3-4).This need for organizational transformation has given birth to the concept of transformational leadership in the new organisation structures. The change management to be effective must strongly involve the incorporation of both human and technological resources in an optimal manner to achieve business objectives. Transformational leaders henceforth must endeavour to create change in the existing organisational culture through motivational leadership aimed at enhancing the productive aspects of the people concerned. The process of organizational transformation henceforth aims at rendering total human development in terms of enhancement of the aspects of self esteem and in creation of a secured job environment. People belonging to the change culture are found to gain vivid work experience s while working with the new organisational processes and systems. Thus this process helps in also cultivating the concept of a learning organization. Change management in the organization thus helps in building a learned workforce which would help the organization to reach to new boundaries in terms of both market share and revenues. (Chawla & Renesch, 2006, p.105-108). The revenues of the firm from 1990 to 2010 grew along a rapid pace and reached $ 9.5 billion in 2010 from a meagre $1.6 billion in 1999. The strategies incorporated by the Chairman of the company to achieve the above ends consisted of augmenting the value of the shareholders of the company and

Virus paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Virus paper - Essay Example The smallest are barely larger than ribosomes or other internal structures found inside normal cells; the largest (e.g., variola) are almost the size of small bacteria. Some viruses can be detected under a sophisticated light microscope, but for most only an electron microscope will serve. For generations, therefore, even the best scientists were essentially guessing about the structure, nature, and functioning of viruses, entities they could observe only indirectly (Bookchin and Schumacher 68). The first actual sighting of a variola virus-the first virus of any sort so visualized-came in 1947, under an electron microscope. The smallpox virus capsid is often described as ellipsoid or brick shaped. Many viruses, including variola, are often enveloped, with the capsid housed inside an outer membrane made of proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids, which provides, in the case of variola, an overall spherical appearance (Imperato 390). The infection process begins when a virus approaches a t arget cell; forcible entry into the cell may then be accomplished in several different ways. Some antibacterial viruses mechanically drill a hole in the cell's outer structure and inject the viral DNA through it, much like the operation of a hypodermic syringe, with the now empty capsid remaining outside. Viruses that afflict plants often enter passively through a microtear in the cell wall (Imperato 390). The defenses that the human body-and modern medicine-erect against many other types of infections are often less effective against viruses. But viruses pose exceptional challenges to the immune system. Some of these aggressors undergo very frequent mutation, altering the external configuration of those glycoproteins, and thereby fooling or evading the antibodies (Strohman 169). Dear Granny the main problem is that scientists have not yet come to conclusion concerning a question whether viruses are alive or dead. On the one hand, a virus is nature's ultimate parasite: it is incapable, by itself, of undertaking the usual array of biological functions. It cannot produce or consume energy, move, grow, or reproduce without first invading a living cell and usurping the host's internal mechanisms. For this reason, many scientists do not consider variola or any other virus to be truly alive, even in the sense that other simple microorganisms, from bacteria to rickettsia (another family of infectious microorganisms) are considered so (Strohman 169). Other authorities would, perhaps more generously, consider viruses to be minimal "living organisms". At the same time, there is surely something about a virus that makes it different from a conglomeration of inert chemicals. It has at least a kind of life potential, a dormant biological presence, that is undeniable. The recent discovery of categories of even smaller, and even less lifelike, infective entities has further obscured the question of deriving a meaningful definition of life (Strohman 169). Prions, proteinlike particles devoid of any nucleic acid, have been implicated in a variety of degenerative brain diseases, such as scrapie in sheep, mad cow disease, and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in humans, although their precise operational mechanisms are still unknown. Viroids are a cluster of similar plant-invading creatures, containing a snippet of RNAbut none of the other

Discuss and analyse the recent global financial crisis and consequent Essay

Discuss and analyse the recent global financial crisis and consequent credit crunch - Essay Example Massive trade excesses in some nations, and deficit in trade in other nations and lastly, savings rates that were too high in some areas of the world and too low in others were also other events that led to the global financial crisis (Kirton, Oldani, and Savona 2011, p90). The recent global financial crisis events began on 9 August 2007. On that date, there was a seizure in the banking system, which was instigated by the BNP Paribas’ move, to cease its activities in three hedge funds that focused on US mortgage debt (Elliott 2011, p1). In 2008, credit markets in the Wall Street froze, and this indicated that credit crunch crisis was eminent. This affected everything in the financial markets (Szilagyi 2011, p18). Sustained low interest rates that began in 1999 up to 2004 made the adjustable-rate mortgages (ARMs) look very attractive to the potential buyers. The low interest rates were largely driven by the huge current deficit in the United States and other nations such as Chi na who purchased the US Treasury bonds (Marshall 2009, p10). There is strong evidence that suggests that, in most parts of the United States, it had become very easy and cheap to get a subprime mortgage (Marshall 2009, p11). The upward rise in the house prices was as a result of the property speculations. These mentioned factors led to the huge housing bubble. However, a number of factors led to the collapse of the housing bubble. These factors include; (a) stagnation and decline of the average hourly wages in the United States since 2002 until 2009, (b) the growth in housing supply that tracked price rises, and (c) as the interest rates increased, the ARMs became less attractive, and this led to the elimination from the market of most non-prime prospective buyers (Marshall 2009, p13). The macroeconomic imbalances (that is, deficits in the current accounts and low bond yields) stimulated low interest rates, which ultimately affected the housing market (Marshall 2009, p15). The event s that led to the recent global financial crisis can be summarised into three main shocks that captured the crisis. Firstly, bursting of the housing bubble caused the reallocation of capital and the consequential loss of household wealth and a drop in the consumption rates. Secondly, a sharp increase in equity risk premium caused a rise in the cost of capital, fall in private investment, and the collapse of the demand for durable goods. Thirdly and lastly, a reappraisal of risk by the households caused them to increase savings, decrease consumption, and discount their future labour income (McKibbin and Stoeckel 2009, p6). Economic and Financial Consequences The global financial crisis has had a significant effect on the public finances of most nations in the world. Fiscal revenues are decreasing because of lower commodity and asset prices, and operation of the automatic stabilizers (International Monetary Fund 2009, p3). The global financial crisis affected both the developing and d eveloped nations of the world. However, the effects were far felt in developing nations where there was further segmentation. In the advanced economies, the global financial crisis led to the drying up of credit, as susceptible financial institutions became highly risk unfavorable and very cautious in evaluating the creditworthiness of other companies (Kirton, Oldani, and Savona 2011, p91). Even with the massive bailouts to the

Minimum Wage and Living Wage in New Zealand Essay

Minimum Wage and Living Wage in New Zealand - Essay Example The minimum wage law dictates the amount of cash that a worker is to earn, in a particular hour of work. The minimum wage should not be surpassed by the employer, as it is stated in the rights of the workers. However, there have been emergent issues on making the livelihood of the workers better. The issue of introducing the living wage to workers is debatable in such a country, when there is focus on the living standards. The question is; should New Zealand raise the minimum wage of workers to the living wage of families? In this question, there are some people for the issue of introducing the living wage, whilst some of the people in the country have their issues with the law. Therefore, expounding on this issue would be appropriate in coming up with better decisions. This qualitative study will involve holding a semi-structured interview with a relevant party. The secretary general of Amalgamated Workers Union New Zealand will be interviewed at a time appropriate for them. A set o f open-end questions will be asked relating to the living and minimum wages for workers. The study is important considering that both workers and employers are faced by constraints that need to be dealt with. The study will be useful in helping policy makers make considerations of various factors for the good of workers, employers, and the economy. Minimum Wage and Living Wage in New Zealand Introduction New Zealand is the country that has been struggling to make a positive impact in regard to its economic performance (International Energy Agency, 2011). It is an admissible fact that the most outstanding structure in making an improvement in its performance is by focusing on the employment levels and payment to workers. When a country has a high employment level, it is endowed with maximum labor. With such amassed labor, the country will be in a point of making a positive economic performance. This is due to the established production that will come from the labor intensity. In actu al sense, a country initiates making greater employment for its citizens in order to make a plausible performance. In recent economic times, countries have been struggling to ensure their population is employed, with a decent work and pay. However, this is dependent on a number of factors. These factors make it hard for a country to make full employment of the population, and give decent work. These factors include capital intensity, production, ability to pay the workers and the growth rate of the economy. When the above factors are considered at acceptable standards, the country will have a positive encounter when it comes to employment. 1. An overview of the subject The topic Though employment is the main factor in this research, the minimum wage is a solid factor to consider. This is heightened by the fact that all people in the world need a decent work for their living. Decent work denotes a person being contented with the working conditions, the wages and returns from other jo bs. Wage is defined as the reward given to workers, after offering their services. The wages given is remuneration for the workers, depending on the work and services they have offered. Therefore, the workers will be given their wages according to the work they have offered, depending on some other factors. Theses factor include experience, education level, merit and entry level. This shows the reason why many people may be in the same

Book review for No No Boy by John Okada Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Book review for No No Boy by John Okada - Essay Example The novel is a fiction, not memoir. The divided loyalties and the mental blocks are the issues with Ichiro Yamada who is interned during World War II. The author has written a book that clubs personal ideology with national ideologies and aspirations and how the combustible youth is caught in a dilemma of the emotional world between his country of origin and the country of which he is the citizen. Ichiro fails to answer appropriately two critical questions in the questionnaire related to allegiance to America. His improper answers and denial to serve in the American armed forces and his repudiation to abjure allegiance to Japan send him to prison. On his release from the prison, Ichiro moves back to Seattle and the ground realities of the social life there bother him intensely. His parents are proud of being Japanese and he accepts United States as his own. With this dilemma he meets and has discussions on the subject with many people, but is unable to sort out the conflicts within h is inner world. Kenji, one of his intimate friends joins the military and during the war operations loses a leg with just two years to live. Ichiro sees parity in his mental anguish and the physical pain of Kenji. His friends and his own brother take potshots at him for not joining the army, which they term as betrayal of the country. The two friends discuss whether or not it is feasible to trade places. Ichiro admits candidly "I wasn't in the army, Ken, I was in jail. I'm a no-no boy." (p. 62)Though this is a joke between the two friends, it throws light on the type of social environment prevailing at that time which Ichiro finds it tough to challenge. The war has sharpened the conflicts of generations and anti-emotions have turned out to be hard. Adjusting with the new identity, even though one wants to go with, is hard due to the societal and familial pressures. Ichiro is compelled to bow before the hard identity scenario created by his mother. She wants him to identify with her Japanese identity and sets her own terms and conditions for loving him. Their views points about national identity are poles apart. He finally makes the decision that he is an American and looks forward to the future with cautious positivity. He is unable to think in tandem with his mother who has been in United States for thirty-five years and yet she identifies with the Japanese, viewed from all angels. John Okada was born and raised in Seattle and he attended University of Washington. The friend and foe of literary creations is time. Time intervened for more than a decade, before this book is able to hit the stands of popularity. This first literary creation by the author was published in 1957 and it remained unnoticed for years until it shot into fame when the literature of the Asian American minority groups becomes popular in the American literary scene by 1970s. This novel is the reflection of the inner crisis of the young Japanese who is confronted with the dual challenge of identity. Race is the crying question around which all other subsidiary confusion hangs around. Every segment in the town is labeled with the racial tag and its separate identity stands pronounced. â€Å"Oriental† is a big umbrella under which the categories of Japanese, Chinese and Asians are accommodated. Races victimized by the whites are also not at peace with each other and they are at loggerheads with their own problems. The younger generation has to break through such communal

Happiness Found in Happy Prince by Oscar Wilde Essay Example for Free

Happiness Found in Happy Prince by Oscar Wilde Essay Most heroism deals with promotion of virtue and reproach of vice. Sloughing off from such a hackneyed, yet widely used frame of thought, the novel ‘The Happy Prince’ (1888) by Oscar Wilde connects heroism with compassion. With a subconscious reminiscent between ‘courage’ and ‘hero’, compassion is generally not a primary association with a strong image of a hero. Oscar Wilde however, through utilization of ‘the happy prince’ as a mechanism, conveys the idea of compassion and sacrifice which consists of happiness and beauty under a plot of heroism. The compassion felt by the Happy Prince can be distinguished in two levels of analysis: on himself and on the poor. The Happy Prince, once a real prince who lived within absolute extravagance, had a life far from poverty, hunger or servility. Upon encountering the inferior reality of civilian faces after becoming a statue, the Happy Prince expresses his compassion on himself by saying: â€Å"My courtiers called me the Happy Prince, and happy indeed I was, if pleasure be happiness. (5)This distinction indicates the realization of the Happy Prince on the difference between aesthetic happiness and materialistic pleasure. It also foreshadows the displacement of the Happy Prince’s compassion from his own past self to the poor, which causes heroic action by the Happy Prince. The jewels sent by the Happy Prince to the poor in the novel are not just simple sapphires or gold. Rather, they are ‘true’ jewels resulted from self compassion. Such open-mindedness of the Happy Prince allows him to be penitent for his past misdeeds and sacrifice himself to supplement such faults, which resulted in promotion of the common good. History tells us that those who are titled as ‘leaders’ sacrifice themselves for others. Regardless of how much sacrifice they burden, all leaders have a certain extent of private loss to yield common welfare. Similarly, the story ‘The Happy Prince’ also depicts heroism based on sacrifice. In the novel, the Happy Prince, having beauty as a single reason for its production, sacrifices himself to the non haves on the streets by distributing his jewels through the help of a sparrow. Since the purpose for its existence diminishes, the mayor of the city eventually destroys the statue of the Happy Prince. The point Oscar Wilde makes at this part is that action for others with sincerity and truthfulness overwhelms the loss one gets through such action. As Erich Fromm, a German philosopher wrote in his book, ‘To Have or To Be’, property without purpose loses the value of it and absence with a purpose is more valued than its presence. Having firm belief on his action, the Happy Prince was able to practice his heroism. Mother Theresa said she lived a happy life. Her ‘happy life’, Mother Theresa said, seems to overlap with the life the Happy Prince lived as a statue. They both gave everything they had for others and earned happiness as exchange. Compassion and sacrifice may be a true key to opening a treasure box full of happiness and beauty.

Psycho Analytic Theorist And The Concepts Essay

Psycho Analytic Theorist And The Concepts Essay This paper discusses about psycho analytic theorist and the concepts of theorist according to the psychology. It also details the influential of Freuds work in the case of psychoanalytic theory and the concept of Freud. This paper explains the importance of Sigmund Freuds work and the suggestions about psychology. It also details how the analysts that followed Freud dissent from did his viewpoint. This paper links the theorist in the psychoanalytic group. It also concludes with this concept by providing the psychoanalytic concepts and how the concepts are relevant to todays culture. Psychoanalytic theory The psychoanalytic theory is the theory that is the dynamic of personality development and the personality development guides psychoanalytic theory. The method of psychoanalytic theory was associated by Sigmund Freud and the analysis of psychology is used to explore unconsciousness impulses, internal conflicts and anxieties etc. The psychoanalytic theory also focuses the concepts of infantile sexuality, transference and the resistance. The psychoanalytic theory is used to learn and behaviours of human being. 1. Sigmund Freud is a great psychoanalytic theorist and his psychoanalytic concepts are used in many ways among the world. The Sigmund Freuds concepts are influential to the people in the case of improving their personality and mental activities. His work was more influential to the people in the case of providing the solution for unconscious, childhood memories, dream analysis, and for the personality development. He had offered the complete explanation about the human condition. Sigmund Freud had given the perfect value to the psychoanalyst in the case of improving the human being activities, personality development and so on (Sigmund Freud, 2007). Human being utilizes the concept of Sigmund Fused in order improve themselves. His work was understandable and detailed for the people and he has written a broad range of subjects such as culture, dreams and religion that shows the Freuds perspectives in order to improve the human being activities. His theories were enormously influential in order to fabricate the culture of human being. His concept is very effective in the case of enhancing the psychology of human being. 2. Freud had believed the behaviour is the one that is driven from the fears and the desires and the behaviour is locked in the unconscious. The psychoanalysts had followed the point of Freud in order to improve the psychology. The psychoanalytic followers are believed that the concept of Sigmund Freud will be used for shaping the psychology environment and life of human being. Freud had made the consciousness thoughts that are very powerful for human beings life. The psychoanalysis is also the part of popular human culture and that was implemented by Sigmund Fraud thats why psychoanalyst noted him as the father of psychoanalytic theory. According to Freuds viewpoint, the psychoanalytic factors are provided effectively hence other analysts are giving the value to his point. Several psychoanalysts are attracted by the effective points of Sigmund Frauds. They are positively affected by the concepts of Sigmund Fraud. The impact of Sigmund Freud is the valuable one in the case of psychological theories. The psychoanalysts are followed the concepts of infantile sexuality, transference, and the superego that are made by the points of Sigmund Freud. Sigmund Freud is a great founder of psychoanalytic theory for the enhancement of people. His points are also very effective in the case of giving the personality development, motivation and perception to human being. Psychoanalysts are treating Freud as an inspiration for them and they are also following the methods and guideline of Sigmund Fraud to the people. The psychoanalyst concepts are very useful today for enhancing the activities of people in this world. Sigmund Freud was the doctor and he was delivered many psychoanalytic theory books in order to improve the psychological factors. These books are followed by psychoanalysts. 3. The theorists are contributing more in the case of psychoanalytic group by providing effective philosophy methods to them. The contribution and the value of theorist are very significant in the case of improving the psychological factors. The psychoanalytical theory is the most influential factor in the case of twentieth century and because the people in the twentieth century needs to have the better psychology theory for their enhancement. The theorists are also the responsible for the implementation of psychoanalytic theory. Hence the theorists are linked with the psychoanalytical theory. The theorists are linked with the psychoanalytic groups by emphasizing the role of unconscious impulses and overcoming conflicts. The theorist are decides the psychological stage, age, virtue that are related with the psychopathology for the psychoanalytic theory. The psychoanalytical group is concentrated in the case of child psychology, treating couples and conducting the family therapy conditions. In this case, the guidelines of psychological theory and the theorists are very helpful to psychoanalytical theory. The theorists and psychoanalytical groups link with the psychoanalytical group in the case of providing the better solution for the human beings problems. The theorists are providing the theories for psychological factors in order to improve mental health professionals and practises. The theorists are also delivering the concepts in the case of handling the feelings, thoughts and actions that are linked with the psycho analytical theories. The attachment theory, transference, and rà ©sistance are the theories that are contributed by the theorist for the psychoanalytical theory groups. The psychoanalytic theory group is depending upon the theorists and the contribution of theorist and hence theorist must link in the case of psychoanalytic theory groups. 4. The three types of psychoanalytical concepts are relevant to todays culture and the modern culture is affected by those psychoanalytical concepts. These psychoanalytic concepts were provided by Sigmund Freud and his concepts very effective to modern world. The three concepts are unconsciousness, resistance and transference and so on. The unconsciousness is the psychoanalytical concept that provides the development of adult emotional problems in the world. This unconscious treatment method is involving in the case of free association of ideas, interpretation by patient, discover the ling buried events. The unconsciousness concept is making the present relationship to patient in the current culture. The resistance is the concept of psychoanalytic theory that was initiated by Sigmund Fraud. It also plays the vital role in the culture of human beings. This resistance is referred to the patients in the case of blocking memories from the unconscious memory. This is related with the modern culture in the case of developing the thoughts and feelings of patients. In this case, the patient can automatically resist the self exploration that makes the comfortable environment to patients. Then the patients can experience the life as happier because the painful emotions can be resisted by this concept thats why this concept also relevant to todays culture (Ruth Stein, 1999). The third concept is the effective one that concept also plays the vital role in the case of current culture. It is the phenomenon that is characterized by unconsciousness redirection of feeling among the human being. The transference is utilizes for better understanding of the patients feelings and thoughts in this world. The transference makes the better positive relationship to the patients hence it is also related with the current culture. Conclusion The psychoanalytic theory and the concepts of psychoanalytic theory were discussed. The concepts of Sigmund Freud to the psychoanalytical theory were described. The relationship of theorists with the psychoanalytical theory was detailed. The contribution of psychoanalyst to the psychoanalytic theory by Sigmund Freud was explained. The three psychoanalytical concepts that are related with the current culture were provided and the supporting points for them were concluded.

Feminist Art Movement: Overview and Analysis

Feminist Art Movement: Overview and Analysis The feminist art movement that officially began in the 1960s- refers to the efforts and accomplishments of feminists who made art reflecting womens lives and experiences. In doing so, it brought more visibility to female artists, and was a very influential political statement in itself. It was a movement that consisted of various artists and general public alike, who all fought for the same things, equality, womens liberation and womens rights. Artists that made more than their fair share of political statements through their art were the likes Ghada Amer and Barbara Kruger. The issues that they addressed were ideologies commonly held in society, and were issues that they intended to change. In this case, the challenging task that the artists dealt with in the following works, is the issue of equality between males and females, through examining the issue of the predominant male gaze -acknowledged all throughout Feminist art history. In La Jaune, 1999, Ghada Amer addresses the idea of the male gaze, and the representation of the female identity. With We Wont Play Nature to Your Culture, 1983, Barbara Kruger uses direct address exploring the gendering way of looking, and focusing on the predominant male gaze and works to favor the female gaze. Most Feminist Political theory, in contrast, sees women and their situation as central to political analysis; it asks why it is that in virtually all known societies men appear to have more power and privilege than women, and how this can be changed. The issues that feminist artists fight for have been around for many centuries, but only up until the 1960s had it truly been acknowledged. Although during the years 1850 to 1914 had the first official wave of feminism occurred, the feminist movement gave way to several woman activists part taking in the political actions performed by all female organizations scanning across the globe, that also gave way to the three -then- newly founded, very influential groups of woman who protested and demanded there be equality between men and woman in all aspects of life. First to be acknowledged are the Suffragettes, who triggered off other woman movements campaigning for womens suffrage, namely the National Union of Womans Suffrage Societies (NUWSS), and from the rights movement in 1848, the Womans Social and Political Union (WSPU), (McQuiston, 1997, p. 18). These political groups utilize manual mass production of political posters in order to spread their messages, and like the discussed work s of Amer and Kruger, their artworks addressed the gendering way of looking, (King, 1992, p. 135). In saying that, these are works of the two artists that are primarily concerned with patriarchy in the viewing of their artworks to do with the representation of the female identity, and what they can do to change this gendering way of looking. It wasnt until the social revolution of the 1960s occurred, and within it the second wave of feminism, that woman themselves once again used communication media and other innovative formats to produce their own visual and verbal messages for womens liberation. (McQuiston, 1997, p. 19) Barbara Kruger is one of the more acknowledged female artists that do this; use visual, and verbal messages to communicate their ideas. All throughout the three waves of feminism, the male gaze has remained a dominant universal issue, intensifying through out the years through that of bold statements made by artists like Barbara Kruger herself. The concept of the gendering way of looking became a visual construct through the way the male visual ideology treats woman as an object of art to secure the artist as primarily male (King, 1992, p. 135). Whilst some feminists have argued to be included in malestream ideologies, many have also long argued that women are in important respects both different from and superior to men, and that the problem they face is not discrimination or capitalism but male power. (Bryson, 2003, p. 3) Through the artwork, We Wont Play Nature to your Culture, 1983, Barbara Kruger directly approaches the concept of the dominant male power and redirects this power to favor the female audience. She communicates her belief in refuting the idea of men being the producer of culture, and women merely being a product of nature. This is exactly what the visually imagery and text in this work demands, and her direct approach in attempting to do so will let us assume that Jacques Ranciere would agree -that Krugers use of text would be effective in this situation- as he once stated: One must recognize that the first tool used to subjugate another is also the first great equalizer: Language. (Chan, 2007, p. 260). Put simply, Krugers approach to reach equality in the gendering way of looking has placed both male and female viewers in a place of lesser patriarchy, but further favors the female gaze through her bold statement We -meaning women- Wont Play Nature to your Culture. The fact that [m]en still [had] greater power to look (Allen, 1992, p.5), had Kruger responding with We Wont Play Nature to your Culture, directly addressing the female audience, instilling the female point of view with more validation in comparison to that of the male gaze. This then shows the attempt that Kruger is making to change the concept of the gendering way of looking, and instead of catering to male gaze, she indirectly does this, but in favor of that of the female gaze, thus giving females the dominance in spectatorship. [] It has an immediate, emotional impact. It can be interpreted as holding a complex comment on the place of scenario and representation in male-female relations under patriarchy. She builds on the feminist analysis of representation as political [] (Mulvey, 2009, p. 134). In saying that, Krugers use of the female figure in this work embodies very strong political statements, as stated by Catherine King -in other words, but to the same effect-, where although Kruger is directly addressing the male audience, in We Wont Play Nature to your Culture, she has in turn privileged the female audience and given them primacy of spectatorship, whom presumably share the same views as the artist herself (King, 1992, p. 187). Therefore, directly approaching the concept of patriarchy, and reverses its place in the viewing of this work. In doing so, also addresses the way in which male representations of women, to stand for nature; take away womens ability to see in their own right. [This image reverses] the advertising tricks used in designs [that are aimed at the female] consumer. and as a result, now favors the female gaze (King, 1992, p. 187). One of womens greatest instruments for visual shock has been the female body itself, assigned political status for the first time by the Womens Liberation Movement in the 1960s. As the female body had been so often stigmatized, exploited in the misogyny, women suddenly took a firm stand and began to use their bodies to make political statements. (McQuiston, 1997, p. 14) Although she wasnt a feminist artist so to speak, Ghada Amers work, La Jaune, 1999, speaks loudly to the ideologies that feminist artists held, namely the concept of addressing the male gaze. Through this work, she works to communicate, and challenges us to rethink the way in which women are represented in society. Amer asks us to rethink the issue of presenting female sexuality in the media by focusing on a cultural aspect of the Western world -extracting pornographic imagery from sex industry magazines and representing them in copied and traced images (Aurricchio, 2001, p. 27). By doing this, Amer directly addresses the idea of the male gaze through presenting women as sexual objects, as [m]en still [had] greater power to look (Allen, 1992, p.5). The 1990s have witnessed an ongoing battle against oppressive representations of women in the media, as well as new examples of women using their bodies to create their own power-messages for political causes. (McQuiston, 1997, p. 172) In response to the degradation of the representation of females as sexual objects, Amer is concerned with this being an issue in dire need of recovery. The idea that women, and the images of women, are constructed in order to be looked at by men -and was constructed with theories in art history, especially those about the female nude- was an idea that Amer sought to change (Allen, 1992, p. 4). So in saying that, Amers work is a direct attempt at making women prime viewers, and make it impossible for the dominant ideologies -such as the male gaze- of feminism to recuperate. [] figures are repeated [of a female in a provocatively arousing position as if to show that a] typically female pastime was literally playing with itself. An endless chain of masturbating women, veiled by a mass of cotton as if attempting to evade the viewers voyeuristic gaze. (Grosenick, 2001, p.30) Amers work slowly manifests itself and comes into being when you as the viewer come to the realization that the art works is not just tangled colored cotton, but that youre staring at a painting of embroidered provocative female figures. It comes in and out of being as its cotton veil brings our perspectives as the audience, in and out of focus, acknowledging the expertise of the maker in the application of the materials evident in the work, then to acknowledge the imagery. Thus, instead of submitting to the male gaze, our attention as the viewer is redirected and aimed at acknowledging the making of the work itself and the craftsmanship of the artist. Amers approach to the idea of reclaiming female pleasure- and in turn, intending to change the idea of the predominant male gaze- prevents the viewer from subjecting to the common ideologies that this work was intended to change, the ideology that [w]omen are suppose to make themselves passively receptive, and men are supposed to seek out their pleasures. (King, 1992, p. 136). The idea of reclaiming female pleasure embeds itself in La Jaune, and the two levels on which Amer interprets pleasure help to convey this concept. As seen evident in the work is the physical pleasure, which is made to appeal to the male gaze, and reclaiming the feminine activity of sewing through the embroidery also evident in La Jaune. Although the representation of the female figure is displayed as an erotic object of desire (Grosenick, 2001, p.35), the veil of cotton that partially hides the imagery helps to guide the viewers attention evade the concept of sexuality and the work becomes a purely busy, colourful painting. Politically speaking, the works by these two very different influential female artists speak to the universally held ideology of the predominant gendering way of looking, addressing the concept of the male gaze through the representation of the female identity. The concept of giving female perspective dominance over that of the male gaze is the main objective of the selected works that have been discussed in this essay. Through Ghada Amers, La Jaune, 1999, she reclaimed the idea of female pleasure, acknowledged the male gaze and commented on the degradation of the female identity through her attempt to recover it. Barbara Kruger, We Wont Play Nature to Your Culture, 1983, did what all feminists tried to accomplish, she created art that directly addressed the issue of the gendering way of looking, and gave privilege to the female gaze above the validation of the predominant male gaze.

American Intervention in Cuba and Puerto Rico Essay -- American Histor

End notes are missing from the paper. To Secretary of State John Hay, the Spanish-American War was a "splendid little war", one that would bring tremendous benefit to those fortunate colonies liberated from Spain. For those places where the Spanish were forcibly expelled, there was nothing splendid about either about the war or its aftermath. To state simply that war is hell and that change is disruptive is merely to state the obvious. Beyond this, many U.S. historians have characterized the results of U.S. intervention and subsequent occupation of Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Philippines as a bequest, an opportunity to enjoy previously unknown individual liberties, political self-determination and potential economic prosperity. Other historians have characterized the actions of the United States as nothing short of exploitative imperialism, designed to subjugate those who it considered inferior to a state of political and economic servitude. What is clear is that, in Cuba and Puerto Rico, many viewed the American involvement initially as a positive development. What is equally apparent is that after the war and over time, these pro-American attitudes soured considerably. There were many reasons for this development. Leaving the economic, sociological, and psychological examinations of this large issue to other more ambitious endeavors, this paper aims to explore the way in which the intervention and occupation disrupted and complicated the normal political construction of Cuba and Puerto Rico. Also, in an effort to avoid the larger historiographical debate, political developments will be presented simply in response to conditions. The premise of this paper is that, intentionally or otherwise, the U.S. intervention and subseque... ...s E., Cuba 1933†¦Prologue to Revolution. 1972 Cornell University Press, N.Y. Carrion, Arturo Morales, Puerto Rico, A Political and Cultural History., 1983 WW Norton, N.Y., N.Y. Foner, Philip S., The Spanish-Cuban-American War and the Birth of American Imperialism, Volume 2, (1898-1902), 1972 Monthly Review Press, N.Y., N.Y. Knight, Franklin W., The Caribbean, The Genesis of a Fragmented Nationalism. 1990 Oxford University Press, N.Y., N.Y. Maldonado-Denis, Manuel, Puerto Rico: A Socio-Historic Interpretation. 1972 Random House, N.Y., N.Y. Perez, Louis A., Cuba Under The Platt Amendment, 1902-1934. 1986 University of Pittsburgh Press, Pa. Suchlicki, Jamie, "The Political Ideology of Jose Marti" from: Beckles, Hilary and Verene Shepherd, Caribbean Freedom: Economy and Society from Emancipation to the Present. 1996 Marcus Wiener, Princeton, N.J.

Watchful Government in George Orwells 1984 Essay -- Supervision 1984

Watchful Government in George Orwell's 1984 No one likes being overly supervised and watched. Whether it is a teenager with protective parents or an adult in the workplace with an ever-watching boss the feeling of continuously being watched is unnerving. Throughout history the levels of government supervision have fluctuated from lows to extremes but sometimes the future seems to hold even more watchful governments. These were the feelings when George Orwell wrote the novel 1984. George Orwell showed a world without the freedoms that citizens in the United States live with every day. From looking at the text of 1984 it is obvious how scary a world it is, however this would never be possible in the United States, where inhabitants are free to live a life without repression. From freedom of the press, to freedom of expression and speech, citizens of the United States live with freedoms that those portrayed in 1984 could only dream of. Throughout his book there were many instances that showed Orwell's concern for the world to come. "The hallway smelt of boiled cabbage and old rag mats. At one end of it a colored poster, too large for indoor display, had been tacked to the wall. It depicted simply an enormous face, more than a meter wide; the face of a man of about forty-five with a heavy black mustache and ruggedly handsome features. Winston made for the stairs. It was no use trying the lift. Even at the best of times it was seldom working, and at present the electric current was cut off during daylight hours. It was part of the economy drive in preparation for Hate Week. The flat was seven flights up, and Winston, who was thirty-nine and had a varicose ulcer above his right ankle, went slowly, resting several times on n... ...Big Brother was always watching. Nothing was right unless he said so, and therefore if anyone said anything other then what they were supposed to they would be tried and convicted of a crime. The individual would probably not even know the crime existed. We are lucky as citizens of the United States to have such a freedom. George Orwell predicted a future where an authoritative figure watched every move of every inhabitant. There was no freedom of expression, freedom of speech, and no freedom of the press. For breaking the simplest rule, whatever it may be, the punishment would be severe. Fortunately, George Orwell's predictions of the future came to be untrue. In the United States we live in a society that has freedoms that inhabitants of the world in 1984 did not have. Most importantly, we have the freedom to be free, something George Orwell did not envision.

A Christmas Carol Essay -- Charles Dickens

It was a chilly nineteenth century Christmas Eve, and everybody throughout England were in a festive joyous mood, prepared for Christmas. Everybody except Scrooge who thought Christmas was a waste of money. Scrooge was money hungry, solitary, insensible, uncaring and selfish to say the least. Well he was not completely uncaring about everything. He did seem to care a bit too much about money. He cared so deeply about money that he did not feel heat or cold. No warm or wintry weather effected him. No amount of rain or snow could keep him from going to work. Slowly nature had reformed his features to resemble his heart. He had a pointed chin, shriveled cheeks, dim scary eyes with patches of black underneath, and thin blue lips from which a rough low voice was produced. The only one who ever greeted him was his cheerful, golly, and merry nephew. But his kindness only caused Scrooge's hatred towards him to deepen. They had many discussions about Christmas. It always ended with Scrooge ge tting very mad and using the word humbug in every other sentence. His nephew however always left in the same happy mood without saying one heated word to Scrooge. During his life, Scrooge got a visit from 4 ghosts. The first one was his deceased friend Jacob Marley. That ghost scared Scrooge out of his wits. Then there was the Ghost of Christmas Past, - a supernatural figure with white hair but not a single wrinkle in its face. The Ghost of Christmas Present, a giant who is very golly and is dressed quite elegantly in a green robe. The last one the Ghost of Christmas Yet to Come. He is a scary phantom. All Scrooge can see is the black robe covering him. Scrooge can?t see his face either. The phantom is the scariest because it is mute and never says a w... ...ck home and scrooge immediately falls asleep. When he wakes up and sees that it is Christmas morning he starts jumping and running all about. While he is struck with this great amount of excitement, he shaves, irons his best pair of clothes, buys some poor families a big turkey, gives money to the beggars, and goes to his nephew?s house where they are celebrating Christmas. The nephew opens the door to Scrooge and everyone is hearty. He cares for all and is always full of merriment. His laughter is contagious, and he becomes quite popular among kids and adults too. The next day Scrooge highers his clerk?s salary. The clerk is happy and the Scrooge becomes very close to the clerk?s sons and daughters. Tim survives and Scrooge is like a second father to him. During the rest of his life Scrooge gives many poverty-stricken and penniless people money. All ends well.

Personal development in health Essay

1. How can you evaluate your own knowledge, performance and understanding against relevant standards? So, how do you ensure you are working within up to date standards for health and social care? How do you check this? This is where you improve your performance with training and supervisions and I can check with the CQC to make sure I am doing things right if I was unsure or with my employer. 2. Can you identify your sources of support for planning and reviewing your own development? For examples, sources of support can include formal support, informal support, and supervision, appraisal, within the organisation or beyond the organisation. The code of practice would be my main support and guide lines for planning and reviewing my development or my employer would also help me plan my own development with keeping my training up to date. Also working by the company policy and procedures would keep me within the guide lines. 3. Can you evaluate how any learning activities you have accessed have affected your practice? I completed a fire awareness course and returned to work that evening when one of the clients set a pan on fire on the cooker, by doing the training I learnt to soak a t towel and pay it down from front to back of fire to suffocate it to put it out so was very useful and it worked as before I would have just wet a tea towel and just tried laying it on it no particularly way. So this is just one example of where the training helped with my job in caring for people. I also learnt the best way to deal with a burn is to keep it under cold water to take away the burning sensation, or to keep a cold wet dressing on it till we get to the hospital for treatment. These are just two examples from a first aid course and a fire awareness course. Unit 4222-306- promote and impement health and safety in health and social care 4. Describe the different types of accidents and sudden illness that may occur in your work own work setting. In my work place the most likely accidents is ware clients burn their self when cooking or when then fall over. Another is the self harming which we can in counter quiet regular when our clients are upset about things out of our control. The most often illness is coldsflu or sickness. Quiet often we have clients with breathing problems as well i.e. asthma 5. Explain the procedures to be followed if an accident or sudden illness should occur. If a client had a fall I would check how they was but not move them, just try make comfortable then call a ambulance, I would then notify my employer and they would then notify anyone that needed to no. I would then document everything that happened in the accident book as well as the clients file and on my contact sheets as well. If a client had a problem with their breathing I would get them their inhaler to try and help it but if that didn’t work I would then call an ambulance to assist with a nebuliser or to take them to hospital. I would again notify my employer who would then contact the people who need to no. I would again make sure everything was documented. 6. Explain the main points of legalisation that relates to moving and handling The manual handling operations regulations 1992, which implement the manual handling of loads directive, came into effect on 1 January 1993 and apply to all manual handling activity with a risk of injury. The regulations impose duties on the employers self employed people and employees. Employers must avoid all hazardous manual handling activity where it is reasonably practicable to do so. if it is not they must assess the risk in relation to  the nature of the task, the load, the working environment and the capabilities of the handler and take appropriate action to reduce the risk to the lowest level reasonably The employer’s duties; Avoid the need for hazardous manual handling as far as is reasonably practible. Assess the risk of injury from any hazardous manual handling that can’t be avoided Reduce the risk of injury from hazardous manual handling, as far as reasonably practicable The employee’s duties Follow appropriate systems of work laid down for their safety Make proper use of equipment provided to minimise the risk of injury Co-operate with the employer on health and safety matters. If a care assistant fails to use a hoist that has been provided, they are putting themselves at risk of injury. The employer is unlikely to be liable. Apply the duties of employers, as appropriate, to their own manual handling activities. Taking care to ensure that their activities do not put others at risk 7. Explain principles for safe moving and handling There are some basic principles that everyone should observe prior to carrying out a manual handling operation: Ensure that the object is light enough to lift, is stable and unlikely to shift or move Heavy or awkward loads should be moved using a handling aid Make sure the route is clear from obstructions Make sure there is somewhere to put the load down wherever it is to be moved to Stand as close to the load as possible and spread your feet to shoulder width Bend your knees and try to keep your backs natural, upright posture Grasp the load firmly as close to the body as you can Use the legs to lift in a smooth motion as this offers more leverage reducing the strain on your back Carry the load close to the body with the elbows tucked in to the body Avoid twisting the body as much as possible by turning your feet to position yourself with the load. 8. Describe types of hazardous substances that may be found in the work  setting Bleach can be a hazardous substance if not used right and or enough ventilation is possible or many cleaning products. 9. Describe practices that prevent fires from- a) Starting Keeping things away from flames like tea towels and cloths when cooking. Being very aware and watch you’re cooking so it doesn’t burn dry and catch light. b) Spreading Keep all fire doors shut to try preventing from it spreading and contain the fire. Try to turn off the cause of the fire to try and kill the fire. c) Explain emergency procedures to be followed in the event of a fire in the work setting. To sound the alarm, to call 999, to evacuate the building with a register of who was in and who is out so you can inform the fire service when they arrive. Inform my employer and then when every is safe and fire is out, document it. Unit 4222-374-promote active support 11. Compare the characteristics associated with active support and hotel model in relation to an individual’s support. For guidance here, the ‘hotel model’ refers to institutional style settings organised mainly around staffing needs. They are not person centred and offer a poor quality of life for individuals. An example could be staff undertaking all the domestic tasks and not providing individuals with the opportunity to participate in construction activities. Active support is when you let a client do the things they need to do i.e. cooking, cleaning and self care but are there to assist them when needed. Hotel model is when you going in and do everything as it quicker and easier than waiting for them to do their self and by making them wait to curtain times or days to do some tasks i.e. every has times when they get help to use bathrooms or everyone has the same dinner time to eat or everyone has to go to bed at same time early as easier for staff to cope with if they all in bed. 12. Identify practical changes that could be made within a service setting- A) Promote an individual’s independence To help an individual to have independency could be a simple thing like making a flannel wet and handing it to them to wash their own face instead of you just washing their face, or cutting their food up so they can feed their self as they cannot cut their food up as cant use a knife and fork but could feed their self with a spoon. B) Support informed choices This could be when we go shopping and I suggest different foods for them to choose from or it could be not taking a library book back on time I would just make them aware they would receive a late payment fee that would mean they would then have less money to live on so they would then think about whether it was worth taking it back late or going back and getting it stamped so they can have it again instead of being charged for it. C) Improve quality of life. I could do a risk assessment on them and find they would benefit from some aids to give them a better life for example if they can’t read or see things properly I could arrange for them to see a optician and get glasses so they could see to read and would help with their balance and could lessen the amount of falls that they have had, or it could be someone is not hearing properly and is being a danger to their selves for example when crossing the road they are not hearing the traffic and what’s going on around them. A doctor could arrange a hearing test and a hearing aid which would be better for the client and he would be less dangerous. Unit 4222-325-support individuals during a period of change 13. Describe the types of changes that may occur in the course of an individual’s life. Types of change can include changes that are positive, negative, chosen ,unchosen, temporary or permanent A person could receive news of a death of a family member which they would then grieve. A person could have some good news like winning the lottery or could be their parent wants contact with them after she had put them in care or they got a job or they are clear of any health issues etc They could decide to make a change in their courses they are attending or choose to not have contact with curtain people or could simply be they have chosen to be a vegetarian ect You might have to move house when you don’t want to or move  area when you don’t want to but a family brake down is making you, it could be temporary until your house becomes available or it could be permanent because it wasn’t your house in the first place and you was living with someone. 14. Analyse factors that may make change a positive or negative experience. If someone was being abused but was then moved out it would be a positive move as client would not be being abused any more but the negative side would be the client would have been moved out of the family setting and might not like the idea of being away from family and rebel against it as much as they know it was the right decision they might be confused as to why the person did what they did and why have they been moved and look at it as a punishment as they had not done anything wrong. 15. Can you describe approaches that are likely to enhance an individual’s capacity to manage change and experience change positively? When our clients become 18 they are registered on to the council list for housing so leading up to their 18th birthday we will teach them to cook and clean and look after their selves and to budget and pay bills and how to ask for help when needed and where to go to access what help they need. This all prepares them for change when they have to do things on their own. Unit 4222-342- support positive risk taking for individuals 16. Explain ways in which risk is an integral part of life. Every day life is a risk, crossing the road, cooking, falling over Become ill; making decisions is a risk to weather you makes the right one. 17. Explain why individuals may have been discouraged or prevented from taking risks We may discourage some people of taking risks when they have no fear, like when they might just walk out across the road without looking to see if there any traffic coming, or they turn the cooker on and put a pan on and get distracted and walk away and forget about it until they smell burning, or it could be someone going to the cash point and draws a lot of money out and waves it around for everyone to see and then looses it. 18. Can you describe the links between risk-taking and responsibility, empowerment and social inclusion? The link is offering individuals the opportunity to achieve their goals and dreams of their own choice which empowers the individuals. The person in the support role is responsible for identifying the risks and hazards that come with the chosen activity and decide how the risks could be reduced or the activity adapted to make it less hazardous.